Stork-billed kingfisher, Pelargopsis capensis (Linnaeus,1766)
Meet Singapore's largest kingfisher!

Video [1] credit: Hans Lin

1. Biology

1.1. Feeding behavior

The vast bill of this kingfisher makes a formidable weapon in dealing with its preys

^[1] . Its diet is primarily made up of marine and freshwater organisms (e.g. frogs, fish, crabs and shrimps). Although a kingfisher, this species is not a fish specialist ^[2] . When primary food resources become scarce, it hunts for small mammals (mainly rodents) and young birds – sometimes marauded out of tree holes ^[3] . This thus highlights its range of skills to hunt in different types of terrain.

Being a sit-and-wait predator, it perches quietly while hunting and is often inconspicuous despite its size. When it spots its prey, it plunges down from its perch, and its heavy bodyweight enables it to swoop down fast on a fish swimming near the water surface (read documentation). Like other kingfishers, it has the ability to hover above the water body while searching for its prey ^[4] . Once successful, it would carry its prey back and immobilize it by striking it against the perch a few times^[5] before swallowing it whole. The tapping noise caused by the prey being beaten and bruised can be heard from some distance^[6] .

Check out an interesting observation of a stork-billed kingfisher rejecting its prey.

Feeding behavior of Stork-billed kingfisher. Video [2] credit: 13seaeagle

Fun fact: an average family of 6 stork-billed kingfishers can eat up to 100 fish a day!^[7]

1.2. Nesting and breeding

The stork-billed kingfisher usually lives in a family with an average of 6 members ^[8] . Like many other kingfishers, they are highly territorial and have been known to fiercely chase away large predators up to the size of White-bellied Sea Eagle and Adjutant Stork ^[9] . The species is also monogamous, and both sexes usually work together to excavate the nest cavity in a river bank, decaying tree, termite nest. A breeding pair has been recorded to build their nest out of a small crack in a brick wall by working 5 to 6 hours a day for several weeks ^[10] . Sometimes, a natural tree hollow would also be used. The incubating chamber would typically be located at the end of the tunnel. Each clutch usually contains 2 to 5 eggs, which are glossy, translucent white and near-spherical in shape ^[11] . Both parents would incubate the eggs during the day while only the female incubates the eggs during the night ^[12] . The breeding season varies depending on its residing location ^[13] , but it ranges from January to September.

Mating behavior of Stork-billed kingfishers. Video [3] credit: Simplenaturewatch

In Singapore, an overall increasing trend in its population has been observed ^[14] . Although breeding has been reported, nest were not found ^[15] until 2016, and it was subsequently reported at the same location (Pulau Ubin) a year later.

1.3. Habitat

It is widely but sparsely distributed in tropical south Asia ranging from India and Sri Lanka to Indonesia ^[16] . In order to fish, they usually live by the edge of water bodies. Being a moderately forest dependent species, they are usually vulnerable to development, deforestation and water pollution ^[17] . They are also known to inhabit artificial aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, for instance plantations and drain canals. In Singapore, they can typically be found at waterbodies in or near forests, parks, gardens and mangroves ^[18] .

Two Stork-billed kingfishers in a territorial strife. Video [4] credit: Simplenaturewatch

Fun fact: they occur in altitudes from 0 to 1200 meters (not restricted to lowland)

2. Description

2.1. Diagnostics

• General

• Between kingfishers commonly found in Singapore

• Within genus

• Juvenile

The Stork-billed Kingfisher juvenile is characterised by its scaly breast, slightly more saturated feather colors, duller bill and less prominent red eye ring ^[19] .

• Between sexes

Females are slightly larger, have larger beaks and their mantle is duller, usually more brownish or greenish ^[20] (Image not available).

• Between subspecies

Most merely differ in plumage detail, but P. C. gigantea of the Sulu Islands is most distinct - has a white head, neck and underparts ^[21] 

2.2. Vocalisation

It would usually first attract attention with its harsh cries ^[22] . The call of this noisy kingfisher is made up of a low and far reaching "peer-peer-por" (territorial song) (**XC369408**) repeated every 5 seconds or so ^[23] as well as a loud, raucous shrieking ‘laugh’ ke-ke-ke-ke-ke with explosive accent on the intial ke ^[24] (**XC357465**).

https://www.xeno-canto.org/369408/embed

https://www.xeno-canto.org/357465/embed

3. Distribution and range

3.1. Local

An uncommon resident in Singapore, this bird is often seen on the northern and western coasts, and is fairly common on the surrounding islets^[25]
Sighted at: Central Catchment Forest, Kranji Marsh, Singapore Botanic Gardens, Japanese Garden, Jurong Eco Garden, Hindhede Quarry, Pulau Ubin, Sungei Buloh any patch of suitable habitat ^[26].

* Disclaimer: this list is not exhaustive*

3.2. Global

The continental range of stork-billed kingfisher is mainly restricted to South Asia, from India and Sri Lanka to Indonesia ^[27] .

4. Conservation status

Although it is evaluated as Least Concern mainly due to its extremely large range, global population is decreasing and some populations are threatened by ongoing habitat destruction ^[29] . In Singapore, it is a Uncommon Resident ^[30]

5. Taxonomy and systematics

5.1 Taxonavigation

Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Coraciiformes
Family: Alcedinidae
Genus: Pelargopsis Gloger, 1841
Species: Pelargopsis capensis (Linnaeus, 1766)

5.2 Nomenclature

• Original description

Pelargopsis capensis was first described by Linnaeus in 1766 under Alcedo capensis ^[31] . Linnaeus based his description on Mathurin Jacques Brisson’s specimen, of which he believed had come from the Cape of Good Hope region of South Africa ^[32] . However, species does not occur in Africa, and it was suggested that the specimen had been obtained from Java, Indonesia. It is currently known to have come from near Chandannagar in West Bengal, India ^[33] . The genus Pelargopsis was later introduced by the German zoologist Constantin Gloger ^[34]

• Protonym, synonym and common names

Protonym: Alcedo capensis Linnaeus 1766

Synonym(s):
- Halcyon capensis (Fry, 1980)
*The sources (author name and year) of the following synonyms are unavailable*
- Ramphalcyon capensis
- Alcedo gurial
- Pelargopsis gurial

Common name(s): Brown-headed stork-billed kingfisher^[35] , Common stork-billed kingfisher ^[36]

• Etymology

The genus name Pelargopsis is derived from classical Greek, a combindation of pelargos meaning 'stork', and opsis meaning 'appearance'. The specific epithet, capensis, denotes the Cape of Good Hope

5.3 Phylogenetics

• RAG-1 (Recombination activating gene) and ND2 (NADH dehydrogenase-2 gene)

RAG-1 is known to be a bird-specific gene as it has provided good resolution across varying taxonomic levels in birds ^[39] . Nuclear DNA (RAG-1) evolves slowly and generally provides more phylogenetic signal than mitochondrial markers (ND2) at deeper nodes in a phylogeny. Mitochondrial marker, on the other hand, evolves more quickly and is useful for resolving more closely-related taxa.

• Pelargopsis split or merged with Halcyon ?

The monophyly of Pelargopsis capensis with the three species belonging to genus Halcyon is strongly supported by the combined analysis of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences (highlighted yellow below).
Pelargopsis was lumped together with Halcyon by Fry (1980)^[40] , while phylogeny supports splitting the two genera. Thus, merging or retaining those genera is subjective. However,the decision to split off Pelargopsis from Halcyon could be maintained to account for their difference in morphology ^[41] .
*Disclaimer: Ranks, except species, are arbitrary and uninformative. Taxon names, however, are necessary as communication tools and can exist without ranks.

• Unresolved relationship of Lacedo, Pelargopsis and Halcyon

On the other hand, Lacedo pulchella's sister relationship with Pelargopsis capensis and the three species belonging to genus Halcyon is weakly supported with low posterior probability and insignificant bootstrap value (highlighted in blue above), leaving the relationship between the three genera unresolved (below).

• Type specimen

The available information of holotypes are P. capensis subspecies.

Type specimen for Singapore's subspecies P.c. malaccensis, formerly known as Ramhalcyon capensis hydrophilia, can be found in National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution ^[44] . It was collected from Singapore.

• DNA barcoding

Sequences for mitochondrial gene cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) of the stork-billed kingfisher have been barcoded and are available here

• Subspecies distribution

Polytypic; currently with 15 sub-species recognised. ^[45]

6. References

This page was authored by Wong Chee Weng

Last curated in 2017